The Psychology of Time

 

Psychology 220

Haverford College

 

Marilyn Boltz

Sharpless 405

Phone:  610-896-1235

Email:  mboltz@haverford.edu

 

Course Description:  Time has been referred to as the tacit dimension within psychology because unlike the spatial dimensions of perception, it is not directly available to any sensory organ or system but can only be apprehended through change and the dynamic unfolding of events in the world around us.  And yet despite its ephemeral nature, time is a dimension that has a significant impact upon a wide variety of psychological behavior.  The intent of this course is to examine some of the ways in which this occurs.

 

From a cognitive perspective, it can be demonstrated that the orderly nature of oneÕs environment stems, in part, from the fact that eventsÕ spatial characteristics are structured in and over time.  Music, speech, body movements and walking gaits are among the many events in which the sequence of (e.g.) notes, words, or actions unfold with a characteristic rhythm and tempo over a given time span.  The particular arrangement of this spatio-temporal structure not only influences how an event is perceived and remembered, but also the overall accuracy with which the eventÕs velocity and total duration are subsequently judged.  Such judgments are routinely required in everyday life as exemplified in automobile driving and estimating whether there is sufficient time to pass another car, pull out from a busy intersection, or brake for a stoplight.  In addition to this more micro-level, temporal patterning can also be identified within more global and social frameworks of life.  The types of activities we perform in everyday existence vary in cyclic patterns over the course of a day, week, and year and thereby provide a scheduling scheme that serves to coordinate subpopulations of individuals.  Different cultures have different conceptualizations and attitudes toward time which can be reflected in the overall pace of life.

 

A final dimension which exerts a major influence upon everyday behavior is temporal perspective and oneÕs relative orientation toward the past, present, and future.  Clinical psychologists agree that this orientation is central to oneÕs mental well-being and the degree of ego strength displayed in coping with lifeÕs difficulties.  Indeed, it has been found that disturbances in temporal perspective are correlated with delinquent and criminal behavior as well as certain forms of mental illness.

 

Lastly, the neural substrates of different types of temporal behavior will be examined.  In general, the mechanisms mediating circadian-driven behaviors are quite different from those governing the internal clock and sensitivity to an eventÕs duration and overall velocity.  This is perhaps most apparent in the analysis of timing disorders due to certain diseases and brain trauma that affect certain select areas of the cerebral cortex.

 

Grading:

 

Classroom Participation and Discussion                     10%

Exam I                                                                         25%                

Class Presentation and Outline                                    15%

Exam II                                                                       25%

Final Paper                                                                  25%

 

Lecture Outline

 

I.  Overview

 

a.  Time as the Òlost dimensionÓ within psychology - ecological theory of perception and

     notion of temporal invariants

a.  Various manifestations of psychological time

b.  Brief history of time-keeping - psychological impact of clocks

 

Readings:

 

á      Lundmark, L.  (l996).  The separation of time and nature.  In J.T. Fraser & M.P. Soulsby (Eds.), Dimensions of time and life:  The study of time VIII.  International Universities Press:  Madison, CT.

 

á      Coren, S. & Ward, L.  (l989).  Time and motion.  From Sensation and Perception.  Harcourt Brace:  NY.

 

II.  Rhythm

 

a.  Basic principles of rhythmic organization and production

    1.  grouping rules

    2.  accents

    3.  biases in rhythm perception

    4.  modality differences

b.  Two examples of rhythmic organization within environmental events:

     1.   locomotion and walking gaits; biological motion

     2.   music

c.  Some different functions of rhythm within cognitive behavior:

     1.  highlighting inherent meaning of events

     2.  chunking and organizational device in memory

     3.  motor coordination

     4.  anticipatory attending and generation of expectancies - Dynamic

         Attending Theory

     5.  perceptual judgments

d.  Circadian and biological rhythms

     1.  free running rhythms

     2.  zeitgebers

     3.  neural basis of biological clock

     4.  circadian behaviors - example of sleep

     5.  medical implications of circadian rhythms

 

Class Presentation:  The circadian behavior of different animal species.

 

Readings:

 

á      Fraisse, P.  (l982).  Rhythm and tempo.  In D. Deutsch (Ed.), The psychology of music.  Academic Press: NY.

 

á      Hasty, C.F.  (l993).  Duration and rhythmic process in music.  In J.T. Fraser & L. Rowell (Eds.), Time and process:  The study of time VII.  International Universities Press:  Madison, CT.

 

á      Boltz, M.G.  (l992).  Temporal accent structure and the remembering of filmed narratives.  Journal of Experimental Psychology:  Human Perception and Performance, 18, 90-105.

 

á      Pouthas, V., Provasi, J. & Droit, S.  (l996).  Biobehavioral rhythms: Development and role in early human ontogenesis.  In J.T. Fraser & M.P. Soulsby (Eds.), Dimensions of time and life: The study of time VIII.  International Universities Press: Madison, Connecticut.

 

III.  Tempo

 

a.  Limits on perception - a range of tempo sensitivity

b.  Cognitive processing of tempo information:

    1.  tempo preferences

    2.  memory for tempo information

    3.  tempo perception - some applications to errors in automobile driving 

c.  Relationship between time and space - kappa/tau effects; tempo illusions

d.  Internal tempo

e.  Cross-cultural variations in the pace of life

 

Class Presentation:  Acceleration of time due to technology and its effects on psychological behavior

 

Readings:

 

á      Proffitt, D. & Kaiser, M.  (l995).  Perceiving events.  In W. Epstein & S. Rogers (Eds.), Perception of space and motion.  Academic Press:  NY.

 

á      Ono, A.  (l976).  A study of the literature on the interrelations between subjective time, distance, and speed.  Tohoku Psychologica Folia, 35, 1-11.

 

á      Levine, R. (l996).  Cultural differences in the pace of life.  In H. Helfrich (Ed.) Time and Mind, Gottingen: Hogrefe & Huber Publishers.

 

IV.  Role of Time in Language and Social Cognition

 

a.  Temporal structure of speech and language

     1.  Rhythmic structure in the articulation of phonemes, words, sentences

     2.  Effects on cognitive behavior

b.  Social impressions derived from temporal qualities of the voice

c.  Temporal coordination in conversational interaction

    1.  Turn-taking behavior

    2.  Interactional synchrony

    3.  Speaker accommodation and congruence

    4.  Applications to doctor-patient interactions

 

Class Presentation:  The use of temporal expressions in language and the potential impact on thought:  Evidence for the Whorfian hypothesis?

 

Readings:

 

á      Siegman, A.W.  (l978).  The telltale voice:  Nonverbal messages of verbal communication.  In A. Siegman & S. Feldstein (Eds.), Nonverbal behavior and communication.  Erlbaum Press:  Hillsdale, NJ.

 

á      Condon, W.  (l986).  Communication, rhythm, and structure.  In J. Evans & M. Clynes (Eds.), Rhythm in psychological, linguistic, and musical processes.  pp. 55-77.  Charles Thomas Publishers: Springfield, Illinois.

 

á      Street, R.L.  (l991).  Accomodation in medical consultations.  In H. Giles, J. Coupland, & N. Coupland (Eds.) Contexts of Accomodation: Developments in Applied Sociolinguistics.  pp. 131-156.  Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

 

V.  Event Duration

 

a.  The research methodology and measurement of event duration:

    1.  paired comparison task

    2.  verbal estimation

    3.  production

    4.  reproduction

    5.  extrapolation

    6.  measures of accuracy and directional bias

b.  Research paradigm - prospective vs. retrospective

c.  Psychophysical approach

d.  Models of Experienced Duration - Prospective Timing

    1.  Internal Clock

    2.  Attentional Gate - impact of attentional variables and arousal

e.  Models of Remembered Duration - Retrospective Timing

    1.  Memory-Based Models: 

        - Storage Size Hypothesis

        - Cognitive Change Hypothesis

    2.  Shortcomings and Limitations

    3.  Structural Remembering Approach - the influence of event structure,

         learning, expectancies, and internal tempo

    4.  A modified version of the attentional gate model

 

 

Class Presentations:  Some practical applications of judged duration behavior.

 

Readings:

 

á      Zakay, D. & Block, R.  (l997).  Temporal cognition.  Current Directions in Psychological Science, 6, 12-16.

 

á      Boltz, M.G.  (l998).  The role of learning in remembered duration.  Memory & Cognition, 26, 903-921.

 

á      Kir-Stimon, W. (l977).  Tempo-stasis as a factor in psychotherapy: Individual tempo and life rhythm, temporal territoriality, time planes, and communication.  Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, and Practice, 14, 245-248.

 

á      Boltz, M.G.  (l998).  The relationship between internal and external determinants of time estimation behavior.  In V. DeKeyser, G. dÕYdewalle, & A. Vandierendonck (Eds.), Time and the dynamic control of behavior.  Hogrefe & Huber Publishers:  Gottingen, Germany.

 

VI.  Temporal Perspective

 

a.  Components of experiential time within the self

b.  The multidimensional nature and measurement of temporal perspective

c.  Correlates of future-orientation

d.  Changes across the life-span

e.  Disturbances of temporal perspective due to:

    1.  hypnosis

    2.  delinquency

    3.  mental illness

 

Class Presentation:  The development of temporal concepts and temporal perspective in children.

 

Readings:

 

á      Trommsdorff, G. & Lamm, H.  (l996).  An analysis of future orientation and some of its social determinants.  In J.T. Fraser & N. Lawrence (Eds.), The study of time II.  Springer-Verlag:  NY.

 

á      Melges, F.T.  (l989).  Disorders of time and the brain in severe mental illness.  In J.T. Fraser (Ed.) Time and mind: Interdisciplinary issues.  The study of time VI.  Madison, CT: International Universities Press, Inc.

 

á      Melges, F.T. (l982).  Time and the future in psychopathological spirals.  From Time and the Inner Future.  John Wiley: NY.

 

VII.  Role of Time in Autobiographical Memory

 

a.  Autobiographical memory and its relationship to other memory systems

b.  The temporal organization of personal memories:

     1.  The use of temporal reference frames in remembering

     2.  The ÒbumpÓ of autographical memory

     3.  Childhood amnesia

c.  Event dating:

     1.  Factors influencing the accuracy of event dating

     2.  Reconstructive processes through temporal schemas and landmarks

     3.  Public memories of news events

d.  Prospective memory

 

Readings:

 

á      Smyth, M., Collins, A., Morris, P. & Levy, P.  (l994).  Memory of your past, in the present and for the future.  (pp. 281-291).  From Cognition in action.  Erlbaum: Hillsdale, N.J.

 

á      Robinson, J.  (l986).  Temporal reference systems and autobiographical memory.  In D. Rubin (Ed.), Autobiographical memory.  Cambridge University Press:  NY.

 

á      Thompson, C., Skowronski, J., Larsen, S. & Betz, A.  (l996).  Overview and summary.  From Autobiographical memory:  Remembering what and remembering when.  Erlbaum Press:  Mahwah, N.J.

 

VIII.  SocietyÕs Influence on Experienced Time

 

a.  Social time from three cultural perspectives:

    1.  Linear Model

    2.  Circular Model

    3.  Procedural Model

b.  Utilitarian concept of time

c.  Applications to consumer research

d.  Time as embedded within social organizations

     1.  Various forms of temporal regularity within social systems

     2.  The stratification of self time, interaction time, and institutional time

e.  Perceptions of protracted duration within social events

 

Class Presentation:  Anthropological time: Cross-cultural differences in temporal conceptualization.

 

Readings:

 

á      Nowotny, H.  (l975).  Time structuring and time measurement:  On the interrelation between timekeepers and social time.  In J.T. Fraser & N. Lawrence (Eds.), The study of time II.  Springer-Verlag: NY.

 

á      Selected chapters from:  Zerubavel, E.  (l981).  Hidden rhythms.  University of Chicago Press:  Chicago

1.  Temporal Regularity

2.  Schedules

 

á      Selected chapters from: Levine, R.  (l997).  A Geography of time.  Basic Books: NY.

 

1.  Living on Event Time

2.  Time and Power: The Rules of the Waiting Game

 

á      Selected chapters from:  Gleick, J.  (l999).  Faster:  The acceleration of just about everything.  Vintage Books: New York

1.  Life as a Type A

2.  Pacemaker

3.  On Your Mark, Get Set, Think!

4.  Eat and Run

5.  How Many Hours Do You Work?

 

IX. Neural Bases of Temporal Behavior

 

a.  Interval timing vs. circadian timing

b.  Neural correlates of the Internal Clock/Attentional Gate Model

    1.  Basal Ganglia - timing and force of movements

    2.  Substantia Nigra - dopamine receptors and the pacemaker; ParkinsonÕs disease

    3.  Cerebellum - movement timing, accuracy, and coordination; temporal

            production and perception

    4.  Frontal Cortex - planning, attentional resources, temporal ordering,

            prospective judgments

    5.  Hippocampus - retrospective duration judgments, anterograde amnesia,

            KorsakoffÕs syndrome

 

Class Presentation:  Neural perspective on the timing disorders of schizophrenia.

 

Readings:

 

á      Wittman, M.  (l999).  Time perception and temporal processing levels of the brain.  Chronobiology International, 16, 17-32.

 

á      Block, R.  (l996).  Psychological time and memory systems of the brain.  In J.T. Fraser & M.P. Soulsby (Eds.), Dimensions of time and life: The study of time VIII.  International Universities Press, Inc.: Madison, CT.

 

á      Sacks, O.  (l990).  The lost mariner.  From The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat and Other Clinical Tales.